History of the Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheater

The Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheater is one of the most well-known of the ancient Roman structures because so much of it still remains. Meaning: Amphitheater comes from the Greek amphi ~ on both sides and theatron ~ semicircular viewing place or theater. An Improvement Over the Existing Design The Circus The Colosseum in Rome is an amphitheater. It was developed as an improvement over the differently shaped  but similarly used Circus Maximus, for gladiatorial combats, wild beast fights (venationes), and mock naval battles (naumachiae). Spine: Elliptical in shape, the circus had a fixed central divider called a spina down the middle, which was useful in chariot races, but got in the way during fights.Viewing: In addition, the spectators view was limited in the circus. The amphitheater put spectators on all sides of the action. Flimsy Early Amphitheaters In 50 B.C., C. Scribonius Curio built the first amphitheater in Rome to stage his fathers funeral games. Curios amphitheater and the next one, built in 46 B.C., by Julius Caesar, were made of wood. The weight of the spectators was at times too great for the wooden structure and, of course, the wood was easily destroyed by fire. Stable Amphitheater Emperor Augustus designed a more substantial amphitheater to stage venationes, but it wasnt until the Flavian emperors, Vespasian and Titus, that the enduring, limestone, brick, and marble Amphitheatrum Flavium (aka Vespasians Amphitheater) was built. The construction utilized a careful combination of types: concrete for the foundations, travertine for the piers and arcades, tufa infill between piers for the walls of the lower two levels, and brick-faced concrete used for the upper levels and for most of the vaults.Great Buildings Online - Roman Colosseum The amphitheater was dedicated in A.D. 80, in a ceremony lasting a hundred days, with the slaughter of 5000 sacrificial animals. The amphitheater may not have been finished, however, until the reign of Titus brother Domitian. Lightning damaged the amphitheater, but later emperors repaired and maintained it until the games were ended in the sixth century. Source of the Name Colosseum The medieval historian Bede applied the name Colosseum (Colyseus) to the Amphitheatrum Flavium, possibly because the amphitheater -- which had taken back the pond on the land Nero had devoted to his extravagant golden palace (domus aurea) -- stood beside a colossal statue of Nero. This etymology is disputed. Size of the Flavian Amphitheater The tallest Roman structure, the colosseum was about 160 feet high and covered about six acres. Its long axis is 188m and its short, 156m. Construction used 100,000 cubic meters of travertine (like the cella of the Temple of Hercules Victor), and 300 tons of iron for clamps, according to Filippo Coarelli in Rome and Environs. Although all the seats are gone, at the end of the 19th century, the seating potential was calculated and the figures are generally accepted. There were likely 87,000 seats in 45-50 rows inside the colosseum. Coarelli says social standing determined seating, so those rows closest to the action were reserved for the senatorial classes, whose special seats were inscribed with their names and made of marble. Women were separated at public events from the time of the earliest emperor, Augustus. The Romans probably held mock sea battles in the Flavian Amphitheater. Vomitoria There were 64 numbered doors to let spectators in and out that were called vomitoria. N.B.: Vomitoria were exits, not places spectators regurgitated the contents of their stomachs to facilitate binge eating and drinking. People vomited forth, so to speak, from the exits. Other Noteworthy Aspects of the Colosseum There were substructures under the fighting area that may have been animal dens or channels for water for or from the mock naval battles. It is hard to determine how the Romans produced venationes and naumachiae on the same day. A removable awning called velarium provided the spectators with shade from the sun. The outside of the Flavian amphitheater has three rows of arches, each built according to a different order of architecture, Tuscan (the simplest, Doric, but with an Ionic base), on the ground level, then Ionic, and then the most ornate of the three Greek orders, the Corinthian. The vaults of the Colosseum were both barrel and groined (where barrel arches intersect each other at right angles). The core was concrete, with the exterior covered in cut stone.

Essay on The Radical Impact of Reading - 1585 Words

As children, we begin to develop a firm understanding of grammar, spelling and phonetics; the â€Å"nuts and bolts† of language. Growing into comprehensive readers, we learn to assemble and dissemble the collection of words and symbols which make up sentences. After practicing alternative methods such as letter recognition and memorization, we eventually stop going through â€Å"only the motions of reading† and begin to understand the message behind the words (X1). Once we can understand the written theories and experiences of others, we are better equipped to add to or challenge them, and to construct our own arguments. The consequence of the above process is that if someone does not pass through these stages of learning to read, they are not seen†¦show more content†¦At the time, I was too young to recognize that my vocabulary was expanding as I let my imagination fly me to Hogwarts. Over time, I began to realize the difference that reading made for my everyday life. I began to notice the grammatical errors I normally made while writing and speaking, and strove to change my habits so that I may sound smarter, like the character Hermione Granger. Years later, when I discovered blogging, I managed to conform to the rules of grammar while maintaining a style and structure of my own. While writing scholarly work, however, my argument is often weakened because I spend too much time re-wording my sentences to sound more â€Å"objective.† Just as Malcolm X had to adopt a dialect of English very different from his former â€Å"street talk,† I am forced to change my style for most pro fessional writing. The use of what I call â€Å"personal voice† in scholarly writing can be used to the advantage of both the author and the reader. In an essay called â€Å"Me and My Shadow,† Jane Tompkins explains that rather than taking away from a thesis, personal experience can enrich a text and persuade the reader to invest more time and focus in the piece they are reading (170). When I develop a relationship with the author, closing the book mid-chapter would feel like slamming a door in a friend’s face. In line with Tompkins’ theory, Malcolm X was tooShow MoreRelatedThe Reformation And The Reformation1421 Words   |  6 Pagespart to the selling of indulgences and the flawed teachings of the Catholic Church many people were dissatisfied about their faith during the Renaissance. This led to a period called the Reformation, which began in 1517. The Reformation was led by radical critics Martin Luther and John Calvin, who questioned the teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, due to their selling of indulgences and stray from the Bible. 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Financial analysis of BHP Bulliton

Question: Discuss aboout the Financial analysis of BHP Bulliton. Answer: Introduction about the BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto BHP Billiton is one among the leading mining firms that are being operational in Australia. The company was formed in the year 2001 as result of the merger that took place between Australian Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited (BHP) and the AngloDutch Billiton plc. The headquarters of the company has been set up at Melbourne. The market capitalization of the company has been crossed the limit of $180 billion. The stock of the company has been listed in the Australian as well as in the London stock exchange. The major products that has been mined by BHP Billiton comprises of coal, manganese, nickel and silver. The employee strength of the company has crossed 29000 with total asset strength of USD $ 129 billion. BHP Billiton is a profit making company; however, in the current year the company has incurred losses amounting to $64 billion. The management of the company has given first priority to the health and safety of the employees. They have very well defined the code of ethics t hat need to be followed in by all the employees of the company. On the other hand, in order to create value for the company, the board of directors believes that the company should have a fair, transparent and qualitative governance system. On the other hand, Rio Tinto has been one among the worlds largest mining company. This company although is operational in 60 countries but its major focus is in Australia and Canada. The company was started in the year 1873 which has been formed by a list of investors. The company is majorly engaged in metallic excavating and energy sector. The major products of the company include coal, diamond, aluminum, copper, iron ore and Uranium. The company at the same time been involved in concentrating iron ore and bauxite. The stock of the company has been listed in the Australian as well as in the London stock exchange. The yearly revenue of the company has crossed the mark of $47.5 billion with an annual income of $6.48 billion. The employee strength of the company has crossed 55000 with total asset strength of USD $ 92 billion. As result of changes that have been witnessed all around the globe in relation to the mining industry, the management of the company has decided to focus on the current productivity and reduction of the current cost levels. They believe that they have adopted this strategy well in advance and soon they will be bearing fruits in the coming future. The company has made projections till the year 2030 keeping in mind the growing economies like India and China and based on the same they have made their operations in line. Financial Ratios of BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto BHP Billiton Particular 2014 2015 2016 Revenue USD Mil 56,762 44,636 30,912 Gross Margin % 77.5 77.2 72 Operating Margin % 39.9 19.4 -20.2 Earnings Per Share USD 5.18 0.71 -2.4 Dividends USD 2.36 2.48 1.56 Payout Ratio % * 42.5 45.5 189.9 Profitability 2014 2015 2016 Net Margin % 20.58 4.28 -20.66 Asset Turnover (Average) 0.46 0.32 0.25 Return on Assets % 9.56 1.38 -5.24 Financial Leverage (Average) 1.91 1.92 2.19 Return on Equity % 18.47 2.65 -10.73 Return on Invested Capital % 12.93 2.04 -6.19 Interest Coverage 37.04 20.27 -7.56 Liquidity/Financial Health 2014 2015 2016 Current Ratio 1.23 1.27 1.44 Quick Ratio 0.88 0.92 1.15 Financial Leverage 1.91 1.92 2.19 Debt/Equity 0.38 0.43 0.59 Key Ratios - Efficiency Ratios Efficiency 2014 2015 2016 Days Sales Outstanding 24.92 31.08 36.23 Days Inventory 92.36 126.23 162.5 Payables Period 113.77 175.92 269.56 Cash Conversion Cycle 3.52 -18.61 -70.83 Receivables Turnover 14.64 11.74 10.07 Inventory Turnover 3.95 2.89 2.25 Fixed Assets Turnover 0.63 0.44 0.35 Asset Turnover 0.46 0.32 0.25 Rio Tinto Particular 2013 2014 2015 Revenue USD Mil 51,171 47,664 34,829 Gross Margin % 29.4 28.9 19.8 Operating Margin % 14.5 23.8 10.4 Net Income USD Mil 3,665 6,527 -866 Earnings Per Share USD 1.97 3.51 -0.47 Dividends USD 1.76 2.03 2.2 Payout Ratio % * 56.7 132.6 Profitability 2013 2014 2015 Net Margin % 7.16 13.69 -2.49 Asset Turnover (Average) 0.45 0.44 0.35 Return on Assets % 3.21 5.96 -0.87 Financial Leverage (Average) 2.42 2.33 2.45 Return on Equity % 7.9 14.16 -2.07 Return on Invested Capital % 6.48 11.3 -0.47 Interest Coverage 7.91 15.72 0.03 Liquidity/Financial Health 2013 2014 2015 Current Ratio 1.47 1.73 1.55 Quick Ratio 1 1.33 1.17 Financial Leverage 2.42 2.33 2.45 Debt/Equity 0.03 0.49 0.56 Key Ratios - Efficiency Ratios Efficiency 2013 2014 2015 Days Sales Outstanding 22.05 20.94 20.16 Days Inventory 60.02 53.11 49.14 Payables Period 62.37 29.95 33.72 Cash Conversion Cycle 19.69 44.11 35.58 Receivables Turnover 16.55 17.43 18.1 Inventory Turnover 6.08 6.87 7.43 Fixed Assets Turnover 0.7 0.68 0.54 Asset Turnover 0.45 0.44 0.35 (Source: Morning star) GP ratio Gross and net margin ratio The gross margin ratio of the company reflects the profit that has been earned by the company without considering the non operating expenses of the company. In the GP ratio of the BHP Billiton Company has been increasing over the period of last 7 years. There has been consistent in the ratio. On the other hand, the trend for the gross profit ratio for the Rio Tinto limited is on a downfall which is consistently decreeing. The net profit ratio gives the profitability of a company and is most sought after ratio by investors who are looking for dividend and returns. There has been some positive trend in the net profit of the company in the previous two years (i.e. 2013 and 2014) but when the same has been compared with the net profit that both the companies has earned in the last two years reflects a negative picture. There has been consistent decrease in the same making it difficult for the management to manage. The NP ratio of Rio has turned negative in the year 2015. Current and Quick Ratio The current ratio is used to test the market liquidity and firm's ability to meet out the demands raised by creditors. In the case of BHP Billiton company the current ratio stands at around 127% in the year 2015. On the other hand the quick ratio keeps a track on the liquidity of the company. This ratio checks the ability of the company to meet out its short term obligations through the help of its liquid assets. The Quick ratio of the BHP Company in the year 2015 stands close to 88%. These both the ratios are consistent for the BHP Company. However, there was some downfall in the middle of the years but the same has now recovered. On the other hand, in case of Rio Tinto, the liquidity ratio of the company is relatively on a higher side as compared to the BHP limited. Financial Reporting Framework For the purpose of meeting out the financial need of the company, BHP Billiton is relying on both equity and long term debt as the sources. The Long term debt of the company has been increasing consistently over the period of last 5 years. At the same time the company has short term debt which has been paid consistently by the company. In case of BHP, the management of the company relies more on the long term debt for meeting out the finance needs of the company where 90% of the finance needs are catered by the long term debt sources. On the other hand, in case of Rio Tinto, the story is other way round. In this case as well, the company relies on both equity and long term debt as the sources. The management of Rio Tinto Company relies more on the equity sources (common stock) meeting out the finance needs of the company where 90% of the finance needs are catered by the equity sources. USD in millions (BHP Bullition) 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Short-term debt $ 3,327 $ 4,872 $ 4,088 $ 2,443 $ 3,373 Long-term debt $ 24,629 $ 29,739 $ 29,036 $ 27,625 $ 31,462 Common stock $ 2,255 $ 2,255 $ 2,255 $ 2,243 $ 2,243 USD in millions (Rio Tinto) 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Short-term debt $ 1,447 $ 2,228 $ 3,909 $ 2,684 $ 2,436 Long-term debt $ 20,357 $ 24,591 $ 1,232 $ 22,535 $ 20,812 Common stock $ 5,816 $ 46,865 $ 45,886 $ 46,285 $ 37,349 In terms of the market conditions, the Australian Mining industry has been facing huge ups and downs. This movement is majorly on account of the transition that has been taken place in China. This transition has been responsible for the huge volatility in the mining industry all across the globe. In this scenario, the mining company with long term vision and sustainability and with lucrative projects in hand will be able to manage in this industry and will be able earn profits. By the year 2015, China along holds the consumption of 61% of the iron ore demand in the world. This shows the dependence on the country and any economic or political change is going to impact the mining companies in the entire world. From the side of reporting frame work, BHP Billiton is required to prepare the financial statements in line with the AASB (Australian Accounting standard board) which is in compliance with the IFRS. On the other hand, the financial statement of Rio Tinto is prepared in line with the US GAAP. Analysis and comparison of financial sources The financial sources of both the companies are more or less similar. However, the usage and the percentage of the finance sources are different. For purpose of meeting out the financial need of the company, BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto both are relying on both equity and long term debt as the sources. In case of BHP, the management of the company relies more on the long term debt for meeting out the finance needs of the company where 90% of the finance needs are catered by the long term debt sources. On the other hand, in case of Rio Tinto, the story is other way round. In this case as well, the company relies on both equity and long term debt as the sources. The management of Rio Tinto Company relies more on the equity sources (common stock) meeting out the finance needs of the company where 90% of the finance needs are catered by the equity sources. In case of BHP Billiton, its been not more than 15 years. The company has more dependence on the debt sources of finance. However, the debt cost of the company is relative on a higher side. On the other hand, in case of Rio Tinto, the company has reduced the debt on a higher side by meeting the financial need by issue of common stock. However, the debt equity ratio of the company is more or less same. There has been a sudden decrease in the debt equity ratio for Rio in the year 2014 but again the same was brought in line with BHP. Liquidity/Financial Health 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Debt/Equity (BHP) 0.22 0.38 0.42 0.38 0.43 0.59 Debt/Equity (RIO) 0.24 0.39 0.52 0.03 0.49 0.56 For the purpose of the financial reporting framework, the financial statement of BHP and Rio both are prepared in line with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), as issued by the International Accounting Standards Board. There has been no major change in the reporting framework of the companies as both are in line with the IFRS. Conclusion In the above case, the financial health of both the companies has been analyzed. The financial ratios of both the companies have been analyzed and watched closely. Our analysis has been done on the internal factors of the company external macroeconomic factors are not taken into account, these factors also might have significant affect financial performance of both companies. However looking at the overall financial position and performance of both the companies and when asked to make a choice then in that case, the financial position of BHP Billiton tends to be strong enough as compared to Rio TINTO in all prospects. References BHP Billiton Ltd, Annual Report 2015_ https://www.bhpbilliton.com/~/media/bhp/documents/investors/annual-reports/2015/bhpbillitonsustainabilityreport2015_interactive.pdf, Viewed on 29th Jan 2017 Rio Tinto.com, Basic Background of the Rio Tinto, Viewed on 29th Jan 2017, https://www.riotinto.com/aboutus/strategy-5006.aspx Austrliamining.com, 2016, The top ten trends for mining in 2016, viewed on 29th Jan 2017, https://www.australianmining.com.au/features/top-ten-trends-mining-2016/ IP Australia, Industry analysis of Mining, viewed on 29th Jan 2017, https://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/pdfs/The_Australian_Mining_Industry_Report.pdf Morning star, Financial analysis of BHP Bulliton, viewed on 29th Jan 2017, https://financials.morningstar.com/ratios/r.html?t=BHP Morning star, Financial analysis of BHP Rio Tinto, viewed on 29th Jan 2017, https://financials.morningstar.com/ratios/r.html?t=RIO

Gene Therapy Essay Research Paper What is free essay sample

Gene Therapy Essay, Research Paper What is Gene Therapy? What types of cistron therapies cure familial diseases? Many diseases seen today are the consequence of a faulty cistron in the Deoxyribonucleic acid of thepatient and can non be cured utilizing the traditional methods such as antibiotics and antiviral medicine. The victims are now looking to cistron therapy as a possible remedy for their jobs. Gene Therapy is the procedure of replacing a faulty cistron inside a patient s Deoxyribonucleic acid with a working cistron that will bring forth the right cistron merchandises. The familial diseases, in which a individual known cistron does non work decently, such as reaping hook cell anaemia is the most suited to be treated with the cistron therapy. There are two types of cistron therapy in bring arounding these diseases, patient therapy and embryo therapy. In the procedure of the patient therapy, the first measure is placing the faulty cistron and insulating a normal opposite number. We will write a custom essay sample on Gene Therapy Essay Research Paper What is or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page To obtain right cistron action, it may be necessary to set it into the right site on the host cell chromosome, or even to cancel the faulty cistron, and the Deoxyribonucleic acid can so be replicated each clip the host cell divided. But if the new cell is injected straight into the patient s organic structure, it will be capable to the organic structure s immune system that will acknowledge it as foreign and aim it to be destroyed along with the healthy Deoxyribonucleic acid that it is carrying.So the cells extracted from the patient are to be treated and adding the new cistron in a trial tubing in the research lab to do certain that the Deoxyribonucleic acid is inserted inan appropriate topographic point in the genome, and the cells can so be returned to the patient s organic structure. Now it is possible to offer the parents an prenatal diagnosing to look over if the foetus is affected by some individual cistron defects. If it does, the parents can take embryo therapy to bring around it instead so abortion. While the basic procedure is similar with the one of patient therapy, to make an embryo therapy is a small spot easier than a patient therapy, because the immune rejection system of the embryo is non to the full developed. The new DNA will non be ejected, while the former DNA will be altered. Gene therapy seems to be a promising and positive measure for the medical community, but ethical inquiries arise every twenty-four hours as we discover more and more about the contents of the human genome. Gene therapy has a promising potency to better the lives of those who have diseases that have until now been decease sentenced, but to take it into existent pattern human existences still have a long manner to travel.

Muslim Mosque vs Christian Basilica free essay sample

There are many differences between the muslim and christian Basilica as well as many similarities. They also have so many things that make them unique in their own way. Taking a further look at each belief helps us have a clearer understanding of the Mosque and the Basilica. The word Islam is Arabic and means submission to the will of God. Islam teaches that one must submit to God in Arabic in order to achieve true peace of mind. Allah is God, the same God Christians and Jews worship. The word Muslim means one who submits to the will of God, regardless of race, nationality or ethnic background. Muhammad is believed to be the final prophet. Human beings are not believed to be sinful, but are seen as capable of both good and evil. Muslims believe God has given people free will. It is known â€Å"Ones deeds and actions measure ones faith†. We will write a custom essay sample on Muslim Mosque vs Christian Basilica or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Islamic teachings encompass all aspects of life and ethics; consciousness of God is encouraged in all aspects of human affairs. Worship in Islam is not limited to religious rituals. Muslims believe the Quran has been perfectly preserved in both its words and meaning in a living language. Gods final revelation to humankind was publicly recited in front of both Muslim and non-Muslim communities during the lifetime of the Prophet. The Qur’ans main message is submit to Almighty God and worship Him alone. Muhammad, a documented, historic figure, lived in the full light of history. God sent the revelation to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, and he in turn preached and lived it. He was a man who lived a humble life in the service of God, and established an all-encompassing religion and way of life by showing what it means to be an ideal friend, husband, teacher, ruler, warrior and judge. The true balance of an Islamic life is established by having a healthy fear of God as well as a belief in His infinite Mercy. A life without fear of God leads to sin and disobedience, but believing that we have sinned so much that God will not possibly forgive us only leads to despair. Islam teaches that life is a test, and that all human beings will be accountable before God. Apart of the Christianity belief, there is a set of biblical ethnics and moral codes that we can chose to abide by to represent our Christian faith. With choosing this faith you choose to worship one god and practice your faith in one Sabbath or also know as a church. Christians strong believe in accepting the death of Jesus and resurrection of Jesus as well that all sinful acts done by people can be repented by god if that person has promise to devote themselves to god. Christians devote one day a week which is Sunday to praise in the name of god, which they meet at the church and read a scripture from the bible and speak of the struggles that god has went through in order for gods people to live the life they live now. After they read the scriptures and rejoice over the good and bad things in their life they pray and accept the body of Christ which is bread and wine. Then throughout the week in order to keep the Christian faith alive in your life and household you may read the bible and pray daily. Hypostyle mosque means â€Å"many columns†. Most mosques built in Arab lands utilized this style for centuries. The architecture is shaped mostly on the strong regional traditions of the time and place where it is built. The most necessity of mosque architecture is that it would be able to hold the entire male population of a city. The congregational mosques are required to have a large prayer hall, and this is done so by an open courtyard known as a â€Å"Sahn†. In the courtyard is a hot water fountain and is used for ritual cleansing that is done before prayer. The Mihrab is a niche in the wall that indicated the direction of Mecca, to which all Muslims pray. Minaret is a tower that is usually attached to the mosque which is where the call to prayer is announced. There is calligraphic art. The Christian Basilica differs because it is used as a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. The first Basilica had no religious function. The shape of the had a floor plan of a rectangular hall but one usually followed into churches that led into the central body with one aisle at each side and a vault at one end opposite to the main door at the other end. There was a raised platform from where the clergy officiated. This building plan was mostly used for smaller audience halls of the emperors, governors, and the very rich than for the great public basilicas functioning as law courts and other public purposes. In conclusion, the architecture of the Mosque and how it has shaped Muslim beliefs differ to the interior space from the Christian Basilica. This essay has been formatted to explain the Muslim and Christian beliefs and the architecture of the Mosque and the Basilica.

The Great Gatsby Movie Adaptations

'The Great Gatsby' Movie Adaptations The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald is one of the great novels in American literature, but into which formats (and multimedia) forms have the novel been adapted? The answer is several. In all, there are six film versions of The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald: 1926 - The Great Gatsby Distributed by: Paramount PicturesReleased: Nov. 21, 1926Directed by: Herbert BrenonProduced by: Jesse L. Lasky and Adolph ZukorSilent movie, based on a stage adaptation written by Owen Davis. Also written by Becky Gardiner and Elizabeth MeehanStarring: Warner Baxter, Lois Wilson, and William Powell.No copies of the entire film are known to exist, but the National Archives has a trailer for the film. 1949 - The Great Gatsby Distributed by: Paramount PicturesDirected by: Elliott NugentProduced by: Richard MaibaumStarring: Alan Ladd, Betty Field, Macdonald Carey, Ruth Hussey, Barry Sullivan, Shelley Winters, and Howard Da SilvaWriters: Richard Maibaum and Cyril Hume (also the stage adaptation by Owen Davis)Music by: Robert Emmett DolanCinematography: John F. SeitzEditing by: Ellsworth Hoagland 1974 - The Great Gatsby Distributed by: Newdon Productions and Paramount PicturesRelease date: March 29, 1974Directed by: Jack Clayton (In MemoirsTennessee Williams wrote: It seems to me that quite a few of my stories, as well as my one acts, would provide interesting and profitable material for the contemporary cinema, if committed to ... such cinematic masters of direction as Jack Clayton, who made of The Great Gatsby a film that even surpassed, I think, the novel by Scott Fitzgerald.)Starring: Sam Waterston, Mia Farrow, Robert Redford, Bruce Dern, and Karen Black.Screenplay by: Francis Ford Coppola 2000 - The Great Gatsby Directed by Robert MarkowitzMade-for-TV movie.Starring: Toby Stephens, Paul Rudd, and Mira Sorvino. 2002 - G Directed by: Christopher Scott CherotModernizedStarring: Richard T. Jones, Blair Underwood, and Chenoa Maxwell 2013 - The Great Gatsby Directed by: Baz LuhrmannRelease date: May 10, 2013Starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Carey Mulligan, and Tobey Maguire.

Catfish noodling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Catfish noodling - Research Paper Example To be specific, those who indulge in noodling must know swimming and other techniques related to it. Similar to other sports items, noodling requires team effort. Robert Z. Cohen states that, â€Å"Noodling has become so popular in the South that the Okie Noodling Festival is held annually at Pauls Valley, Oklahoma† (29). One must not misunderstand that noodling is a simple technique. Instead, noodling requires physical fitness, experience, and basic knowledge on flathead catfish. Besides, these who indulge in this activity make use of their bare hands, but no other tools. If the flathead catfish is spotted within deep rivers/lakes, the process of noodling becomes more interesting. Some experienced noodlers catch fish which are living in underwater caves. So, one cannot ignore the sports value of noodling because the same is a group activity. One can see that the spread of noodling is limited to the scenario of American South. To be specific, noodling is an activity with immense cultural/traditional value. Tim M. Berra states that, â€Å"Local people in the southern United States may capture flat-heads by noodling† (159). The noodlers select others as spotters to spot and chase catfish. The partnership between a noodler/noodlers and spotter will be long-lasting because an experienced spotter can be helpful for a noodler. So, one can see that noodling leads to proper socialization and cohesion among members within the group. As noodling is limited within a specific geographical area (say, American South), it possesses certain cultural characteristics which is symbolic of traditional style of fishing. So, one can see that the socio-cultural significance of noodling is related to its characteristics as a group activity and as a traditional fishing technique. On the other side, modern fishing methods like angling does not require this much effort to catch fish. As the noodlers make use of their hands to catch

Event management to reach a strategic goal Essay

Event management to reach a strategic goal - Essay Example Active, performance of an organization for the purpose of creating required quality of organizational behavior. As we know organizational behavior may be created via trainings, motivation and even punishment sometimes. Any organization should accept proactive position in this context.Therefore, we defined the main factors that may influence organizational behavior. Now it is time to talk how organizational behavior is able to influence the overall performance of an organization. We are convinced that there is no need to explain that low degree of organizational behavior negatively influences the overall performance of a company or some other organization. That is why it is important to provide the channels via which organizational behavior may influence performance. In our opinion, among these channels the following ones can be pointed out:Productivity – the low degree of organizational behavior lowers productivity of employees;Corporate climate – inappropriate organiza tional behavior spoils corporate climate inside an organizations. Spoiled relations lower productivity once again;Inappropriate organizational behavior damages informational flows inside a company. Because of lack and low quality of information, wrong decisions are made and the whole organization suffers;There are usually conflicts between the managers, shareholders and employees. As a result an organization cannot move to a common goal. This factor slows down development of an organization.... The bigger an organization is – the greatest is the number of its employees. It means that relations between them have a lot of levels and can be really complicated. It is a significant challenge to create an appropriate organizational behavior in a big organization; The results of an organization’s performance. Bad results create negative corporate climate and environment. Respectively people are not in a good mood to think about some principles of appropriate behavior; Organizational structure. One of the best definitions of this term is the following. â€Å"Organizational structure is the framework, typically hierarchical, within which an organization arranges its lines of authority and communications, and allocates rights and duties. Organizational structure determines the manner and extent to which roles, power, and responsibilities are delegated, controlled, and coordinated, and how information flows between levels of management† (Organizational Structure D efinition). Quality of organizational behavior depends on a type and quality of organizational structure. In fact, better organizational structure means better organizational behavior; Industry and a type of performance/business. There are kinds of performance, where employees experience significant pressure and event stresses. That is why it is quite difficult to talk about some culture of organizational behavior in such conditions; The degree of professionalism of employees. We believe that higher professionalism and higher degree of education mean better quality of organizational behavior. People know the required values, respect them and try to implement on practice; Active, performance of an organization for the purpose of creating required quality of

Education mis in East African countries - Tanzania Dissertation

Education mis in East African countries - Tanzania - Dissertation Example The creation of the MIS model will serve the purposes of empowering decision makers and the creation of capacity to deliver better education services across the sector. In the area of requirements analysis, the creation of the specification for the MIS model was executed through incorporation of national and international standards of education, regarding the needs of the users of the Tanzanian education sector. Communication with the users was executed through interviews, as this model offered unbiased information on the viewpoints of the user population. Feedback surveys were also helpful towards reaching the desired information base, as collected from social networking and other ICT-related data sites. Areas of constraints included the vague knowledge of the specifications desired by the user population, the unreasonable timelines of the end-users, and the communication gap between implementation teams and the end-user population. The rationales for the choices made were based on rationale capture and rationale representation, which were verified using argument-based choices. The software requirements specification was designed to emphasize on and foster the usage of management information systems throughout the creation, processing and consumption of information. Performance indicators revolved around the service delivery of service personnel to the documentation of students, and offering a complete picture of the educations sector. The features of the model under implementation include capturing baseline statistics like the demography of users to school performance capacities. Data flow across the sector was created to improve the practice and quality of management across the different user groups. The schedule for the implementation of the model will extend across 2011 and 2012, prior to expansion depending on the depicted implementation needs and uptake capacity. Under design specification, the model was split into two sub-phases: the top level design an d the detailed design level. The implementation of the model covered the development of the model, creation of data collection forms, data entry models and checking of the quality of the application. In the area of testing, the MIS model was tested on a number of areas, including the presence of bugs, model usability, and model compatibility. The model will offer a platform from which the education sector can run in a more effective manner, following the more effective transfer and communication of relevant information across the sector. INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE MIS MODEL UNDER CREATION The education sector at Tanzania has historically faced numerous challenges, including the lack of basic infrastructure like electricity at local

Identification Of Poisonous And Non Poisonous Snake

Identification Of Poisonous And Non Poisonous Snake INTRODUCTION Snakes are one of the most interesting reptilian creatures of earth. They are interesting as for the purpose of study as well as research and that is so because of the one character they possess in them and that is there Poison which is called by the name of Venom. Unlike all reptile snakes are poisonous but not all of them. A few species among them failed to obtain that character. This venom act as both useful weapon as well as defense shield against its pray and enemy. The snake venom is a hazardous protein and characterized by very complex compositions. It is slimy egg-like viscous liquid having slightly fishy smell. It is the complex set of harmful toxicants as well as proteins. Other than toxicants and proteins the snake venom contains several peptides, amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleosides, biological amines and metal ions, which make it even more complex than other normal proteins. Venom contains more than 20 kinds of enzymes and toxins, but the main ingredients of the venom are toxic proteins. The toxic component present in snake venom varies according to the snake species or even the venom secreted by the same snake in different season may also vary. This changes the characteristic of different snake venom and decides its role in pharmacological, toxicological and medical field. Snake venom mainly consists of neurotoxins, cardiotoxins, toxins that cause blood clotting, bleeding toxins (that stops the blood clotting and blood remains to flow continuously even after injury), harmful enzymes and other major components. The cytotoxic venom is more effective than the neurotoxic type venom, and it will work almost immediately to the prey such as the mouse and frogs. Although the snakes are very calm and hideous animals (except a few ones) yet mortality rate associated with the snakebites is a serious public health problem in almost all the region of the world, especially in rural areas where medical facilities are low or absent. In India, majority of bites and mortality are due to King cobra, Naja naja, Daboia Russelli Russells viper, Bangarus caeruleus (common krait) and Echis carinatus (saw-scaled viper). [1.1] Frequency of snake bite About 35,000 to 50,000 people reportedly die of snake bite in India every year; however, the unreported cases may be more in rural India. Estimated snake bites and (death) cases were reported as 25,000(30) in Europe; 6 20,000(100) in Middle East; 45,000(15) in USA and Canada; 3,00,000( 5,000) in Central and South America; 10,00,000(20,000) in Africa; 40,00,000 (1,00,000) in Asia; 10,000 (200) in Oceania all total worldwide 5 million ( 1,25,000). Death incidence due to snake bite is rather rare in Australia, Europe and North America but frequent in South Asia, South-East Asia and Sub-Sahar an Africa. In Zimbabwe on 274 cases studied, 4 out of 5 3, 6, 7 children died who are under 8 years old. [1.2] Identification of poisonous and non-poisonous snake (source:www.buzzle.com//venomous-snake-identification-identifying-poisonous-snakes.html) Poisonous snakes generally possess the characters like Vertically elliptical shaped cat like pupil. A small depression (termed pit) between the eyes and nostrils. Triangle shaped head e.g. Copperheads and rattle snakes, exception- Elapids. Underside scales of tail go completely all the way across in a single row from the anal plate; the very tip of the tail may possess two scale rows. Head and body both are seen during swimming time. Generally of multiple colors. In contrast, non-poisonous snakes generally possess the characters like: Round pupil in the center of eye. U shaped head. Two rows of scales from the vent to the tail end. Only head is seen during swimming time. Generally of one color. Mostly stripes are from head to tail. [1.3] Utility of Snake Venom Snake venoms are used to control heart diseases, high blood pressure, cancer (contortrostain produced by Agkistrodon contortrix- is cytostatic in nature and found to lower the growth rate of breast cancer in mice), tumor, polio, neurological disorders (enzymes from cobra venom were found to cure Parkinson s and Alzheimers diseases), excessive bleeding (a blood clotting protein in Taipan venom stop bleeding during surgery or after major trauma), blood clotting (ancrod obtained from Malyan pit viper, used to develop angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors to treat stroke victims), severe allergies amongst others. Other interesting areas of snake venom include the treatment of viruses (as venom contain phospholipidases which break down cell membrane), aging and some are even used in commercial wrinkle cream! [1.4] Phospholipase-A2 Phospholipase A2 is one of the most intensively studied membrane proteins which hydrolyze phospholipids at the sn-2 position to form fatty acid and lysophospholipid products. These are small proteins and the 3-D structures are known to high resolution for several species. Phospholipase A2 proteins are of high pharmaceutical concern since they are responsible for the release of arachidonic acid from membranes, and since the subsequent conversion of this fatty acid to leukotrienes and prostaglandins is part of the inflammatory response. The enzyme also shows very interesting interactions with the membrane on which it binds. It is activated in some way when it interacts with aggregated forms of the substrate, such as in micelles or in bilayers. Electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions are suspected to be involved in the binding of the enzyme to the membrane. Very little is known of the enzyme-membrane complex structure and why the enzyme reacts much more efficiently once it binds its substrates in an aggregated form. The phospholipid molecule consists of a glycerol-3-phosphate (blue colour) esterified at its sn-1 and sn-2 positions to non-polar fatty acids (R1 and R2, respectively) and at its phosphoryl group to a polar head group, X. Phospholipase A1 and phospholipase A2 cleave the acyl ester bonds at sn-1 and sn-2, respectively. Phospholipase C cleaves the glycerophosphate bond whereas phospholipase D removes the head group, X. PLA, phospholipase A; PLC, phospholipase C; PLD, phospholipase D. Phospholipases2.png Fig-1.1: Phospholipase A2 Structure [1.5] Phospholipase-A2 (PLA2) Activity After entering inside the body of human being venom containing PLA2 enzyme start affecting the cell membranes of almost all the cell organelles. Since cell organelles containing cell membrane are made up of phospholipids, hence this this phospholipids act as a reactant for phospholipase a2 and start reacting with it. This phospholipase a2 tends to form arachidonic acid which has an inflammatory sensation and this arachidonic acid further converted into PGG2 by using cyclooxygenases. This PGG2 further transcribed into PGH2 which forms 3 basic compounds PGD2, PGF2, and PGE2. On the basis of the ester bond that is cleaved within a phospholipid molecule, phospholipases are grouped into four families, namely A, B, C and D. Phospholipase A enzymes cleave the acyl ester bond at either the sn-1 (phospholipase A1) or sn-2 (phospholipase A2) position (Figure 1). The Whoterm phospholipase B is given to phospholipases that hydrolyze acyl ester bonds at both sn-1 and sn-2 positions. Enzymes grouped under phospholipase C cleave the glycerophosphate bond, while phospholipase D enzymes remove the polar head group. C:UsersAMITDesktopFINAL PROJECTicb200456f1.gif Fig-1.2:Activity Chain of Phospholipase A2 inside Cell Membrane Phospholipase A2 is being suppressed by Lipocortins which is also known as Annexin. In human Annexin the common cellular protein is found inside the cell. However outside the cell the annexin is also found inside the blood because they are transported out of the cell into the blood. This is because of the lack of a signal peptide necessary for protein to be transported out of the cell. Since there are different dataset had been already prepared but could not found the IC50 value, due to which the working on this dataset could not be carried out further. [1.6] Quantitative Structure Analysis Relationship (QSAR) QSAR plays an important role in lead structure optimization and it can be predicted that QSAR method will become essential for handling the huge amount of data associated with combinatorial chemistry. 3D-QSAR has already been successfully applied to many data sets of enzyme and receptor ligands. The biological activity of molecules is usually measured in assays to establish the level of inhibition of particular signal transduction or metabolic pathways. Chemicals can also be biologically active by being toxic. Drug discovery often involves the use of QSAR to identify chemical structures that could have good inhibitory effects on specific targets and have low toxicity (non-specific activity). Of special interest is the prediction of Log P, which is an important measure used in identifying drug-likeness according to Lipinskis Rule of Five. While many Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship analyses [9] involve the interactions of a family of molecules with an enzyme or receptor bi nding site, QSAR can also be used to study the interactions between the structural domains of proteins. As in the article Structural modeling extends QSAR analysis of antibody-lysozyme interactions to 3D-QSAR, protein-protein interactions can be quantitatively analyzed for structural variations resulted from site-directed mutagenesis. In this study, a wild-type antibody specific for lysozyme and 17 single and double mutants of the antibody were investigated. Quantitative models for the affinity of the antibody-antigen interaction were developed. [1.6.1] 3D-QSAR The 3D-QSAR methods have been developed to improve the prediction accuracies of 2D methods. 3D methods are computationally more complex and demanding than 2D approaches. In general, there are two families of 3D-QSAR methods: alignment-dependent methods and alignment-independent methods. Both families need experimentally or computationally derived bioactive conformations of ligands as templates for studies. QSAR study revealed that alignment- independent descriptor and distance- based topology index are the most important descriptor in predicting apoptosis- inducing activity. 3D-QSAR study was performed using k-nearest neighbor molecular field analysis (kNN-MFA) approach for both electrostatic and steric fields. Three different kNN-MFA 3D- QSAR methods (SW-FB, SA, and GA) were used for the development of models and tested successfully for internal (q2>0.62) and external (predictive r2> 0.52) validation criteria. Thus, 3D- [1.7] Objectives To retrieve the three- dimensional coordinates of protein and known active molecules against phospholipase-A2. To generate significant three-dimensional Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship model from active molecules. To analyze protein-ligand interaction of known actives against phospholipase-A2 molecular docking studies. To identify important scaffold of compound and their structural modification with helps in designing new molecules with improve activities.

Macbeth...Tragic Hero? Essays -- essays research papers

Macbeth is a butcher.† Discuss this statement exploring the ideas of Macbeth as a tragic hero and that the murder may or may not be entirely his fault. In your answer consider the role of the witches, Lady Macbeth, Macbeth’s indecision and his fatal flaw, ambition. You must support your answer with specific reference to and quotes from the play. The play, â€Å"Macbeth† by Shakespeare is entirely focused on the main character, Macbeth. In this play there are many complex themes and symbols that ties in with Macbeth’s character. One particular debate is on whether Macbeth’s a tragic hero or a â€Å"butcher†. This is a particularly difficult topic to discuss as Macbeth’s character constantly fluctuates as the play progresses. Despite many actions taken by Macbeth are seen as tyrannical and evil, he is nevertheless a typical Shakespearean hero. He is courageous, sympathetic, trapped by his own imagination and guilt, has a weakness that leads to his downfall and is driven by forces beyond his control. Macbeth embodies all the characteristics of a tragic hero. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth is seen as a â€Å"brave†, â€Å"noble† and â€Å"valiant† man. He was described as â€Å"Bellona’s bridegroom† (ACT 1 SCENE 2) He fought hard in the battle for Duncan and has earned many people’s respect. He was seen as a hero. Later on, he meets the three witches who hail Macbeth as the â€Å"Thane of Glamis† whom he is at the present, â€Å"Thane of Cawdor† and â€Å"who shall be king thereafter† (ACT 1 SCENE 3). Macbet...

Taj Mahal

128 ebba koch EBBA KOCH THE TAJ MAHAL: ARCHITECTURE, SYMBOLISM, AND URBAN SIGNIFICANCE Much has been written on the Taj Mahal, but little has been said about its architecture. There has been only one interpretation of the symbolism of the mausoleum,1 and the urban situation of the monument in the city of Agra has been almost entirely neglected. In brief form, this essay presents the main results of a recently completed monograph in which I address these issues. 2 The Taj Mahal is the Mughals’ great contribution to world architecture, and, as the contemporary sources reveal, it was conceived as such from the very beginning (? . 1). In the words of Shah Jahan’s early historian Muhammad Amin Qazwini, writing in the 1630s: And a dome of high foundation and a building of great magni? cence was founded—a similar and equal to it the eye of the Age has not seen under these nine vaults of the enamel-blue sky, and of anything resembling it the ear of Time has not heard in any of the past ages†¦it will be the masterpiece of the days to come, and that which adds to the astonishment of humanity at large. 3 Not only was the monument to be a magni? cent burial place for Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan’s beloved wife (d. 631), but also—and this is explicitly pointed out by the emperor’s main historian {Abd al-Hamid Lahawri—it was to testify to the power and glory of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58) and Mughal rule: They laid the plan for a magni? cent building and a dome of high foundation which for its loftiness will until the Day of Resurrection remain a memorial to the sky-reaching ambition of His Majesty, the Sahib Qiran-Thani (Second Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction of the Planets Jupiter and Venus), and its strength will represent the ? rmness of the intentions of its builder. In other words, the Taj Mahal was built with posterity in mind, and we the viewers are part of its concept. I came to study the Taj Mahal in the conte xt of a survey of the palaces and gardens of Shah Jahan that I have been conducting since 1976 as part of a larger survey of Mughal architecture. With the assistance of Dr. Yunus Jaffery from Dr. Zakir Hussain College in Delhi,5 I have established from the Persian sources a corpus of thirty-? ve Shahjahani palaces (sing. dawlatkh? na) and garden residences (sing. b? gh), of which twenty-four proved upon ? ld investigation to exist in varying sizes and states of preservation. In the whole of Islamic architecture, this is the largest extant body of palaces built by a single patron. Entirely new measured drawings of seventeen palaces were prepared by the Indian architect Richard A. Barraud, who drew them on the basis of measurements he and I made during extensive ? eldwork,6 which I undertook because many of these complexes are hardly or not at all recorded. Altogether, Mughal architecture, like the Islamic architecture of India in general, is not well documented.The art historian cann ot rely on measured drawings to the same extent possible for the better-documented areas of Islamic architecture or for Western historical architecture in general. The pioneering surveys of the Archaeological Survey of India from the end of the nineteenth and the ? rst half of the twentieth centuries included several Mughal sites, but only a few—such as the monographs of Edmund W. Smith on Fatehpur Sikri and on Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra—were published. 7 More often than not, when one wants to have an exact plan of a building one has to go and measure it.On the other hand, while establishing this basic documentation, the art historian is confronted by all the questions the discipline has developed in the span of its existence, during which the approach has moved from formal assessment and analysis towards contextual studies. I began my survey of the palaces at Agra and, during the 1980s, spent months in the Red Fort, measuring and photographing its buildings. From here the Taj Mahal was always before my eyes at a distance across the river Yamuna, popularly called Jamna (? g. 2), and one of these views eventually became the cover image of my book Mughal Architecture (1991), in which he taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 129 Fig. 1. Agra, Taj Mahal (1632–43), mausoleum and flanking buildings seen from the upper level of the gate. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1996) I dealt with the Taj Mahal for the ? rst time, albeit only brie? y. 8 I felt overwhelmed by its perfection, splendor, and sheer size. Eventually I realized that as a scholar I was not alone in my awe of the famous building. The vast literature on the Taj Mahal comprises surprisingly few serious scholarly studies and, as I pointed out at the beginning, there is as yet no monograph or modern analytical treatise dedicated to its architecture. At the same time I came to realize that many answers to my questions about Shah Jahan’s palaces and gardens lay in the Taj Mahal as the ultimate project of his architectural patronage. The ? nal incentive to study it in detail came in 1994, when the editors of the second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam asked me to write the article on the building. 10 This started my project of newly documenting and analyzing the entire mausoleum complex; I am the ? rst Western scholar since India gained independence in 1947 to have received permission for such an undertaking, through the generosity of the Archaeological Sur- ey of India. With Richard Barraud I have been measuring and photographing the buildings of the complex in intermittent expeditions during the last ten years. 11 The survey has brought me into the remotest corners of the Taj Mahal, and this close encounter with the architecture has revealed the contribution of the anonymous workmen who inscribed their mason marks on the stones. 12 I began my analysis by looking at the entire complex of the Taj Mahal and at its urban situation. I could not help noticing that the Taj Mahal invites an approach that coincides with what since the 1970s might be termed a â€Å"deconstructive reading. According to Jaques Derrida, the main propagator of this method of disassembling and questioning established notions, all Western thought is based on the idea of centers—Origin, Truth, Ideal Form, Fixed Point, Immovable Mover, Essence, God, and Presence—that guarantee all meaning. The problem with these centers is that they attempt to exclude. In doing so they ignore, repress, or marginalize others. 13 Even those 130 ebba koch Fig. 2. Taj Mahal, mausoleum flanked by mosque (right) and Mihman Khana (left), seen across the river Jamna. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1985) ho are tiring of deconstruction will see that the idea of center-and-margin illustrates the perception of the Taj too tellingly not to be included in this discussion. Traditionally, the white building of the mausoleum takes the position of the center in the conception of th e beholder, who hardly notices the large complex at the end of which it stands. Due to the prominence of the tomb, its surrounding architecture has received very little attention—in other words, it has been marginalized. It thus seems important ? rst to consider the entire complex, especially its subsidiary courtyards, which emerge as integral components of its design.In addition, I have extended the investigation of the surroundings of the Taj to its larger environment, to its relationship to the city of Agra. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX The mausoleum is set at the northern end of the main axis of a vast oblong walled-in complex that mea- sures 896. 10 x 300. 84 m (? g. 3), which works out to 1112. 5 x 374 Shahjahani gaz. Of this complex, the tomb garden and its forecourt are fully preserved; we measured it as 561. 20 x 300. 84 (300) m, that is, 696 x 374 (373) gaz (? g. 4). 14 The Shahjahani linear yard, called gaz or zir? , corresponds to about 81–82 cm, or 32 inches; o ur ? eld studies have shown that it was not an exact unit but a relative, proportionally used one, the length of which could vary slightly, even within one and the same building complex. For the overall length of the Taj complex, the average gaz ? gure comes to 80. 55 cm. The tomb garden consists of two main components: a cross-axial, four-fold garden—in the form of a classical ch? rb? gh (? g. 3: B)—and, towards the river, a raised terrace on which are placed the mausoleum and its ? anking buildings (? g. 3: A).In this, the Taj Mahal garden follows the form of the typical garden of Mughal Agra, the waterfront garden. As I have shown elsewhere, this is a speci? c form of the ch? rb? gh developed by the Mughals in response to the the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance geographic conditions of the Indo-Gangetic plain, and more speci? cally for the riverfront situation at Agra. Here the water source was not a lively spring on a mountain slope, as i n the Mughals’ native Central Asia, but a large, slow-? owing river, from which the desired running water had to be brought into the garden by means of water lifts.Accordingly, the Mughals conceived a garden type to take advantage of this waterfront situation; the main building was not placed in the center of the garden, as in the classical Mughal ch? rb? gh, but rather on an oblong terrace (kurs? ) running along the riverfront. The garden component was on the landward side of the terrace. This shift towards the riverfront provided the main garden pavilions with the climatic advantages of running water and presented a carefully composed front to viewers on a boat or across the river (? g. 2). From the garden itself, the buildings presented an equally satisfying backdrop (? . 1). 15 URBAN CONTEXT Mughal Agra consisted of two bands of such riverfront gardens lining the Jamna, of which only a few survive today. The key to my reconstruction of this riverfront scheme, which formed the urban context of the Taj, is a plan of Agra dating from the 1720s, in the Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum in the City Palace in Jaipur; to my knowledge it is the earliest plan of the city (? g. 5). 16 It shows forty-four garden complexes (including the Agra Fort) along the river and gives their names, which are usually those of their owners, in Devanagari script. 7 Information about these gardens can also be pieced together from the Mughal histories and eulogistic descriptions of Agra, in which gardens of members of the imperial family and of nobles are occasionally mentioned, especially in the context of an imperial visit. Another source is topographical descriptions of Agra written in Persian by local informants for British administrators after the British took Agra in 1803. In his Tafr? h al-{im? r? t (1825–26), Sil Chand describes the gardens of Agra by the same names as feature on the Jaipur plan. 8 The main owners of the riverfront gardens of Agra were the emper ors Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, members of their imperial family, and their nobility the amirs and man? abd? rs. Even Mumtaz Mahal had a garden at Agra, which she bequeathed to her daughter Jahanara; what is left of this Bagh-i Jahanara is now known by the corrupted name Zahara Bagh and lies south of the 131 Ram Bagh, originally Nur Jahan’s Bagh-i Nur Afshan (? g. 5: 3 and 4; ? g. 6). 19 The evidence indicates that most of these gardens followed the riverfront design, with the main building on a terrace overlooking the river and a ch? rb? gh on the landward side. 0 ANALYSIS OF THE COMPLEX RESUMED The design of the Taj garden thus introduces an established Mughal residential garden type into the context of a monumental imperial mausoleum. The waterfront scheme not only determines the shape of the funerary garden of the Taj, it is also a key element in the planning of the entire Taj complex. At the part of it to the south of the garden is a large rectangle (? g. 3: C) whose centr al square forms the Taj forecourt, called jilawkh? na by Shah Jahan’s chroniclers, the of? cially appointed court historian {Abd al-Hamid Lahawri and Muhammad Salih Kanbu, who wrote on his own account.Both provide us with almost identical detailed descriptions of the entire Taj Mahal complex, on the occasion of its of? cial completion on 17 Dhu ’l-Qa{da 1052 (February 6, 1643). 21 Both historians are remarkably consistent in their use of architectural terms; I follow their terminology. The jilawkh? na square (? g. 3: 11) is framed on both of its shorter sides by two smaller courtyard enclosures. An open bazaar street (? g. 3: 12a, 12b) divides these courtyards and provides the main access to the jilawkh? na and, beyond that, through a monumental gateway (? g. 3: 9), to the tomb garden.The northern pair of courtyards contained the residential quarters for the tomb attendants, the khaw p? ras (? g. 3: 10a, 10b). The southern pair contained subsidiary tomb gardens of less er wives of Shah Jahan, whose identity is still under debate (? g. 3: 13a, 13b). These tomb enclosures echoed the design of the main tomb garden on a smaller scale because they followed the characteristic waterfront scheme of a cross-axial ch? rb? gh combined with an oblong terrace on which stood the tomb structure and its ? anking buildings. (These buildings, with one exception, are no longer preserved. On the outside of the Taj complex are three buildings, two to the west (? g. 3: 20, 21) and one to the east; the latter represents another subsidiary tomb complex of this type (? g. 3: 13c). The waterfront scheme is thus transferred to a landlocked situation in these miniature replicas of the main garden. Not only that, but the waterfront garden is also used as the ordering scheme for the entire sub- 132 ebba koch Fig. 3. Site plan of the Taj Mahal with terms derived from the Persian descriptions by Lahawri and Kanbu of 1643: A. riverfront terrace (kurs? ), B. tomb garden (b? gh), C . omplex of the forecourt (jilawkh? na), D. complex with cross-shaped (ch? r s? ) bazaar and four caravanserais (sar? }? ), 1. mausoleum (raw ¬a), 2. mosque (masjid), 3. assembly hall (mihm? n kh? na), 4a–f. wall towers (burj), 5. pool (haw ¬), 6. first temporary burial site of Mumtaz Mahal, 7a, b. garden wall pavilions ({im? rat) popularly called Naubat Khana (Drum House), 8. double arcaded galleries to the south of the garden (? w? n dar ? w? n), 9. gate (darw? za), 10a, b. quarters for tomb attendants (khaw p? ra), 11. forecourt (jilawkh? na), 12a–f. bazaar streets (b? z? r), 13a–c. ubsidiary tombs (maqbara) all popularly called Saheli Burj (Tower of the Female Friend), 14. gates (darw? za): 14a. popularly called Fatehpuri Gate, 14b. popularly called Fatehabad Gate, 15. gate (darw? za) popularly called Sirhi Darwaza, 16. caravan> the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 133 Fig. 4. Plan of the preserved complex. (Drawing: Richard A. Barraud and Ebba Koch) serai (sar? }? ) known since the eighteenth century as: 16a Katra (Market) Omar Khan, 16b. Katra Fulel (Market of Perfumes), 16c. Katra Resham (Silk Market), 16d. Katra Jogidas, 17. entral square (chawk), 18a, b. west and east gates of the bazaar and caravanserai complex, 19. south gate of the bazaar and caravanserai complex popularly called Dakhnay Darwaza, 20. outer western tomb, 21. mosque popularly called Fatehpuri Masjid. (Drawing: Richard A. Barraud and Ebba Koch) 134 ebba koch Fig. 5. Plan of Agra, drawn with added numbering after a plan painted on cloth datable to the 1720s, 294 x 272 cm, in the Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum, City Palace, Jaipur (cat. no. 126): 3. Ram Bagh (Bagh-i Nur Afshan), 4. Zahara Bagh (Bagh-i Jahanara), 9. Tomb of I{timad al-Dawla, 17.Mahtab Bagh, 20. Taj Mahal, 28. Agra Fort. (Drawing: Richard A. Barraud and Ebba Koch) sidiary complex of the Taj. In order to understand the complete design, we must turn to contemporary desc ription and look at eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury plans (compare ? gs. 3 and 7). 22 From these it becomes apparent that south of the jilawkh? na there was another courtyard complex with a cross-axial arrangement (? g. 3: D). It was formed by open, intersecting bazaar streets (? g. 3: 12c, 12d, 12e, 12f), which corresponded to the walkways of the garden, and four squarish sar? }? , that is, caravanserais or inns (? g. 3: 16a, 16b, 16c, 16d), taking the place of the four gar- den plots. We meet here with a unique and highly creative transfer of a ch? rb? gh design onto a complex of utilitarian civic architecture. Hence the con? guration of the rectangular unit containing the jilawkh? na and the cross-axial unit to its south echoed the waterfront scheme of the Taj garden. The entire complex of the Taj Mahal thus consisted formally of two units following the waterfront design—that of the Taj garden, a true waterfront garden, and that of the landlocked variant of the subsidiar y units.The tomb garden and the subsidiary complex were the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 135 Fig. 6. Plan of preserved and reconstructible building substance of the so-called Zahara Bagh, identified as Bagh-i Jahanara (late 1620s to 1630s), Agra. (Drawing: Richard A. Barraud and Ebba Koch) connected not only formally but also functionally. The utilitarian unit serviced the funerary unit of the tomb garden. By imperial command the upkeep of the tomb was ? nanced by the income generated from the bazaars and caravanserais, in addition to that of thirty villages from the district of Agra. 3 The service unit was the counterpart (qar? na)24 of the tomb complex, linked to it by design and function. The two zones, the funerary and the â€Å"wordly,† relate also to the dialectics of the Islamic concept of d? n waduny? }, the domains of the spiritual and the material life. 25 Furthermore, the addition to the mausoleum complex of quarters for merchants and foreign travelers ensured â€Å"that the whole world should see and admire its magni? cence,† in the words of the French jeweler and traveler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who was in Agra in 1640–41, and again in 1665. 6 Its reception through world travelers—jah? n-naward? n or rawandah? – 136 ebba koch yi {? lam, as the Mughals called them27—thus forms an integral part of the concept of the Taj Mahal. Of this two-part service unit, the southern cross-axial component is the great mystery of the Taj Mahal: we do not really know how much of it survives. Hardly anybody who walks through the southern gate of the jilawkh? na (? g. 3: 15) and enters the narrow street with the marble inlay workshops realizes that this area, known as the Taj Ganj, was originally part of the Taj complex.Here a densely built city quarter has grown up in which the architecture of Shah Jahan has been buried almost entirely; today one can make out only fragments of the wings of the original bazaars and caravanserais. The four gates of the central square or chawk are preserved (although two only in part) and protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (? g. 8). The Taj Ganj is, however, an integral part of the Taj Mahal, an indispensable component of its planning. It has been lost, but there is no doubt that it should be given back to the Taj by some means.I am planning to do this in the form of an architectural model that will reconstruct the entire complex of the Taj Mahal, the River Jamna, and the imperial garden called Mahtab Bagh on the opposite side of the river. The model will enable visitors to understand that the Taj is unique not only because of the grandness of the tomb building but also because of the carefully planned creative design, the scale, and the multifunctional complexity of the entire compound. It will also draw attention to the Taj Mahal as a constituent part of the urban scheme of Agra.I envisage placing the model in the new Visitors ’ Center at the Taj Mahal, in the eastern and western courtyards of the khaw p? ras (? g. 9), today called, respectively, Fatehabad Gate Court and Fatehpuri Gate Court. The Taj Mahal Visitors’ Center is part of a new initiative for â€Å"the conservation and restoration†¦of the Taj Mahal and surrounding areas and a new site visitor management,† realized since 2001 in a partnership between the Indian government, represented by the Archaeological Survey of India, and the private sector—the Indian Hotels Company Ltd. that is, the Tata Group of Hotels. The project is monitored by the Taj Mahal Conservation Collaborative, directed by the conservation architect Rahul Mehrotra and by Amita Baig, and advised by a body of global experts of which I am part. 28 Fig. 7. Plan of the entire Taj Mahal complex with designations of the main buildings in Persian, late eighteenth or early nineteenth century, Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, MIK 10060. the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 137 Fig. 8. Taj Mahal, bazaar and caravanserai complex (fig. : D), gate of the central chawk (square) leading to the northeastern caravanserai today called Katra Fulel (fig. 3: 16b). The area is now built in and over by the city quarter Taj Ganj; in the background can be seen the gate of the Taj Mahal garden, behind it part of the mausoleum, and to the right the Mihman Khana. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1999) THE TAJ AS BUILT ARCHITECTURAL THEORY The reconstruction of the original complex of the Taj establishes the determinant role of the waterfront garden in its planning.The complex of the Taj Mahal not only explores the potential of the waterfront garden as an ideal funerary and a utilitarian worldly form, it also expresses canonically the architectural principles of the period. We have no texts to turn to because the Mughals had no written architectural theory, and one wonders to what extent they were affected by the ancient Shastric traditi on of building theory. The Sanskrit texts translated in an extensive program under Akbar did not include the outstanding Indian genre of art and architectural theory, the shilpa sh? stras and v? st? sh? tras, respectively; theorizing about art was not a Mughal literary preoccupation. True, it was hardly a major theme elsewhere in the Islamic world, but one would have expected the Mughals to become interested in the ancient Indian textual tradition of art theory, all the more since, like the Muslim dynasties in India before them, they continued to absorb Indian artistic conventions into their art and architecture, and even newly revived them. However, the fact that no texts exist does not mean that architectural theory was absent from Mughal thinking, especially in the time of Shah Jahan.My investigations have shown that theory was laid down in the architecture itself. As in painting—and I have tried to establish this for the historical images illustrating Shah Jahan’s history, the P? dsh? hn? ma29—the ruler’s buildings and formal gardens express these concepts so systematically that we can derive them from their form itself. The Taj is 138 ebba koch Fig. 9. Taj Mahal, view from the roof level of the gate towards southeast onto the khaw p? ra (quarter of attendants) now called Fatehabad Gate Courtyard (fig. 3: 10b) and the subsidiary tomb to the east of the jilawkh? na (fig. 3: 13b). Photo: Ebba Koch, 1995) â€Å"built architectural theory,† which can be read almost like a literary text once we have mastered the grammar and vocabulary of the architectural language. The buildings speak to us â€Å"with mute eloquence† (bazab? n b? zab? n? ), as Lahawri puts it. 30 We note here the purest expression of a consistent formal systematization characteristic of the entire art of Shah Jahan; it represents a distinctive and outstanding contribution speci? c to this period. The principles of Shahjahani architecture, which interact closely with one another, can be identi? ed as follows: 1. Geometrical planning. . Symmetry. Favored in particular is bilateral symmetry, for which we even have a term in contemporary descriptions of buildings, namely, qar? na,31 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. an Arabic word that expresses the notion of pairing and counterparts but also of integration, thus ? tting conceptually into the ideas of universal harmony that played a great role in the imperial ideology of Shah Jahan. In a typical Shahjahani qar? na scheme, two symmetrical features, one mirroring the other, are arranged on both sides of a central, dominant feature. Hierarchy. This is the overriding principle, which governs all the others.Proportional formulas expressed in triadic divisions. Uniformity of shapes, ordered by hierarchical accents. Sensuous attention to detail. Selective use of naturalism. Symbolism. the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 139 Fig. 10. Agra Fort, courtyard now called Machchhi Bhawan, originally the â€Å"Ground Floor Courtyard of the Hall of Private Audiences† (Dawlat Khana-i Khass), south wing with marble baldachin for Shah Jahan’s throne, 1630s (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1980) A palace wing of the so-called Machchhi Bhawan (1630s) in the Agra fort illustrates these principles very clearly (? . 10). The wing consists of uniformly shaped arcades with a hierarchical accent in the center, in the form of the emperor’s marble baldachin. The central feature and the identical arcades on both sides express in a triadic division bilateral symmetry, or qar? na. The baldachin attains its hierarchical accentuation by the use of nobler material—namely, white marble—and with selective naturalism: it is formed of organic baluster columns, decorated with naturalistically sculpted acanthus leaves that also appear in stucco as decoration of the interior cupola.These elements are shaped with sensuous attention to detail and are in stark contrast to the plainer arcades of the wings. The organic plant forms of the baldachin symbolize the emperor, whose throne stood below it, as the generator of blossoming and wellbeing. 32 This is underlined by the pot with over? owing leaves out of which grows each of the four columns—a p? r? a ghata or p? r? a kalasha, in Indian architecture an ancient symbol of growth, fecundity, and prosperity (? g. 11). 33 This example is meant to suggest that the same principles govern the entire architecture of Shah Jahan— palaces, gardens, mosques, and mausoleums.They are, however, expressed most grandly and most consistently in the Taj Mahal, whose architecture epitomizes the Shahjahani system. THE PRINCIPLES OF SHAHJAHANI ARCHITECTURE AS EXPRESSED IN THE TAJ MAHAL First, a rational and strict geometry is ensured by the use of grid systems based on the Shahjahani gaz. Different modules are used for the garden and the subsidiary 140 ebba koch gate (darw? za) to the garden (? g. 3: 9), the fore court (jilawkh? na) (? g. 3: 11) and its southern gate (? g. 3: 15), the square (chawk) (? g. 3: 17), and the southern gate of the bazaar and caravanserai complex (? g. : 19). These elements are ? anked on both sides by pairs of identical buildings: the mosque (masjid) (? g. 3: 2) and the assembly hall (mihm? n kh? na) (? g. 3: 3), two garden wall pavilions (cim? rat), now called Naubat Khana (? g. 3: 7a, 7b), and, to accentuate the corners of the enclosure wall and the terrace step, three pairs of tower pavilions (burj) (? g. 3: 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 4e, 4f). The elements of the subsidiary unit (? g. 3: C, D) are arranged in the same mirror symmetry. Integrated into the overall qar? na symmetry are centrally planned elements, namely the four-part garden (b? gh) (? g. : B), the four-part bazaar-and-caravanserai complex (? g. 3: D), the miniature ch? rb? ghs of the subsidiary tombs (? g. 3: 13a, 13b); the individual buildings of the mausoleum (? g. 3: 1) and gate (? g. 3: 9) are raised ove r central plans (compare ? gs. 3 and 4). Each element plays an indispensable part in the composition; if just one part were missing, the balance of the entire composition would be destroyed. Bilateral symmetry dominated by a central accent has generally been recognized as an ordering principle of the architecture of rulers aiming at absolute power—a symbol of the ruling force that brings about balance and harmony.For Earl E. Rosenthal, this is expressed in the palace built into the Alhambra in Granada by Charles V in 1526 as a statement of the Christian Reconquista of Spain, â€Å"a striking symbol of the strati? cation of aristocratic society under centralized authority. †35 Third, triadic divisions bound together in proportional formulas determine the shape of plans, elevations, and architectural ornament of the Taj. A leitmotif is the tripartite composition consisting of a dominant feature in the center ? anked by two identical elements; the con? uration relates in turn to hierarchy as well as to qar? na symmetry (? gs. 1 and 12). Fourth is the hierarchical grading of material, forms, and color down to the minutest ornamental detail. Particular striking is hierarchical use of color: the only building in the whole complex faced entirely with white marble is the mausoleum. All the subsidiary structures of the Taj complex are faced with red sandstone; special features such as domes may be clad in white marble (? gs. 1, 2, 12). This hierarchic use of white marble and red sandstone is typical of impe- Fig. 11.Marble baluster column of the baldachin of Shah Jahan’s throne, topped with an acanthus capital and growing out of a pot with overflowing acanthus leaves, the Indian pur? a ghata. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1979) complexes, and even individual buildings have their own grid. The unit of the garden and the riverfront terrace is based on a grid with a 23-gaz module, and the unit of the jilawkh? na and bazaar and caravanserai complex on a 17-gaz mo dule. In the planning of the mausoleum a 7-gaz module is used and in that of the gate a 3-gaz module. 34 Second, there is perfect symmetrical planning with emphasis on bilateral symmetry (qar? a) along a central axis on which are placed the main features. The main axis running north-south is represented by the garden canal and the bazaar street in its extension. On it are set the dominant features: the mausoleum (raw ¬a) (? g. 3: 1), the pool (haw ¬) (? g. 3: 5), the the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 141 Fig. 12. Taj Mahal, Mihman Khana (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1996) rial Mughal architecture, but here it is explored with unparalleled sophistication. It represents the clearest link to pre-Islamic Indian Shastric concepts and expresses social strati? cation.The Mughals elaborated here an architectural praxis that already had been adopted by the early sultans of Delhi and that conforms to older Indian concepts laid down in the Shastric literature. The Vishnud harmottara, an authoritative compilation composed in Kashmir in about the eighth century, recommended white-colored stone for Brahmin buildings and red for those of the Kshatriyas, the warrior caste:36 â€Å"White, it would seem, is opposed to red as the purity of the Brahmin is opposed to the ruling power of the Kshatriya. † The synthesis of the two colors had an auspicious connotation. 7 By using white and red in their buildings, the Mughals represented themselves in the terms of the two highest levels of the Indian social system: architecturally speaking, they were the new Brahmins and the new Kshatryas of the age. Until Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperors were concerned to de? ne themselves as rulers in Indian as well as Muslim terms; the historian {Abd al-Qadir Bada}uni (d. 1004/1595–96), who was an orthodox Muslim and wrote a history of Akbar on his own account, criticized the emperor for letting himself be addressed as an incarnation â€Å"like Rama, Krishna, and ot her in? del kings. 38 Fifth is the uniformity of shapes, ordered by hierarchical accents: for instance, only one type of columnar support—the Shahjahani column—is used in the entire complex. It has a multifaceted shaft, a muqarnas capital, and a base formed of multicusped-arched panels39 and is always combined with a multicusped arch. The proportions and details of the columns may vary according to their position in the complex. In the galleries on both sides of the gate (? g. 3: 8a, 8b) they form monumental arcades (? g. 13, and cf. ?g. 10); on the roof level of the mausoleum similar arcades on a smaller scale are set in the back sides of the p? ht? qs (portals), and Shahjahani half-columns 142 ebba koch Fig. 13. Taj Mahal, galleries south of garden on both sides of the gate (fig. 3: 18), Shahjahani column with faceted shaft, muqarnas capital, and base formed of four multicusped panels, each enriched with a flowering plant in relief. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1995) Fig. 14. Taj Mahal, roof level, pillar with paired Shahjahani half-columns of roof chhatr? (kiosk), behind the back side of the p? sht? q (porch) with gallery formed of Shahjahani columns and multicusped arches. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1996) ?ank the pillars of the four marble chhatr? (kiosks) surrounding the main dome (? g. 14). This uniformity is true of the entire architectural vocabulary and its decoration; it applies to the paneling of the walls with shallow multicusped niches and cartouches, and to the treatment of vaults. One type of decorative facing is used for the main vaults and the half vaults of the mausoleum and gate (? gs. 15, 16)—a network developed from points arranged in concentric circles, which Shah Jahan’s authors described as q? lib k? r? , or mold work, because in the original plaster form of the vault the pattern was applied by means of molds (? g. 15).The design was transferred into marble in the central dome and half vaults of the p? sht? qs of the mausoleu m (? g. 16). Sixth, the principle of sensuous attention to detail is expressed most exemplarily in the ? owers of the mausoleum dado and in the exquisite pietra dura (literally, â€Å"hard stone†: gemstone inlay) decoration of the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan and the screen that surrounds them (? gs. 17, 18, 20, 21). Seventh, in the Taj the selective use of naturalism emphasizes hierarchy. The most naturalistic decor appears in the chief building of the entire complex, the mausoleum (? s. 17, 18, 20, 21). Eighth, the sophisticated symbolism in the architec- the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 143 Fig. 15. Taj Mahal, garden gate, half vault of the southern p? sht? q showing plaster facing with q? lib k? r? , that is, a network forming kite-shaped compartments developed from stars arranged in concentric tiers. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1996) Fig. 16. Taj Mahal, mausoleum, central dome with q? lib k? r? in marble relief. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1996) 1 44 ebba koch brought to its ultimate monumentalized design; thus it was raised to a level above the sphere of mortals.The concept of the eschatological house also governs the elaborate program of the inscriptions, designed by Amanat Khan Shirazi. Z. A. Desai and Wayne Begley have shown that passages of the Qur}an selected for the inscriptions focus on themes of the Last Judgment, divine mercy, the reward of the faithful, and Paradise (? g. 19). 42 Such themes are entirely ? tting for the mausoleum in their evocation of the abode prepared for Mumtaz in Paradise. Begley, however, uses the evidence for another, less close-at-hand reading and sees in the Taj Mahal an architectural realization of an Islamic cosmological scheme—namely, the oncept of the Throne of God on the Day of Judgment, as envisaged and recorded in a diagram by the thirteenth-century Spanish mystic Ibn al-{Arabi in his Fut t al-Makkiyya (1238). 43 Why then, as Maria Eva Subtelny has pointed out, 44 is the famou s Throne verse (Qur}an 2:255) extolling God’s majesty45 absent from the inscriptional program of the Taj Mahal? Begley’s interpretation ignores not only that, but also the use of an established Agra garden plan for the layout of tural program expresses, as I have suggested, the concept of the mausoleum as earthly realization of the mansion of Mumtaz in the garden of Paradise.This is clearly formulated by Lahawri in the of? cial history of the emperor’s reign: †¦the exalted mausoleum, which imitates the gardens of Rizwan [the guardian of Paradise], and which gives an impression of Paradise (literally, the holy enclosures) (raw ¬a-i mu}all? ki az riy?  ¬-i Ri ¬w? n hik? yat kard wa az ha }ir[rat al-] quds nish? n dahad). 40 Mughal eulogistical references have a complexity of their own; while they may represent a purely literary convention, they can also have a direct bearing on the work of architecture or art that they praise.In order to arrive at their meaning, the metaphors used in such eulogies thus have to be carefully evaluated against the evidence brought forth by formal analysis. 41 In the Taj Mahal, every aspect of the architecture supports the concept of the paradisiacal mansion. It is expressed in the overall planning of the entire complex. The waterfront garden, a typical residential garden form of Agra, was realized in ideal forms and Fig. 17. Taj Mahal, p? sht? q of mausoleum, marble dados with rows of naturalistic flowers representing heavenly flowerbeds. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1978) he taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance 145 Fig. 18. Taj Mahal, p? sht? q of the mausoleum, dado flowers of mixed botanical species, detail. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1978) the mausoleum. 46 He also disregards another highly relevant aspect, that is, the ? oral decoration that forms an integral part of the building. In a direct appeal to our senses, the concept of the paradisiacal garden house is expressed in the delicate ? ow ers that appear on the dados, at the eye level of the beholder. They are carved in sensuous detail and represent naturalistic but not necessarily identi? ble botanical species47 that transform the lower walls of the mausoleum into ever-blooming paradisiacal ? owerbeds (? gs. 17, 18). The naturalistic decoration culminates in the interior, in the central ensemble of the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan and the screen that surrounds them. These are covered with spectacular ? owers and plants inlaid with semi-precious stones, in commesso (composition) di pietre dure; the Mughals called the technique parch? n k? r? (literally: â€Å"driven-in work†) (? g. 20). The poet Abu Talib Kalim tells us that the painterly effects that could be obtained with parch? k? r? made it possible to create the desired naturalistic ? owers, permanent and thus superior images of their counterparts in nature: On each stone a hundred colors, paintings, and ornaments Have become apparent through the ch isel’s blade. Fig. 19. Taj Mahal, interior of the central hall, south arch. End of the inscription of Qur}an 39:53–54, with the colophon of the calligrapher, reading â€Å"Finished with His [God’s] help; written by the humble faqir Amanat Khan al-Shirazi, in the year one thousand and forty-eight Hijri [1638–39], and the twelfth of His Majesty’s auspicious accession. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 2001) 146 ebba koch Fig. 20. Cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal (1632) and Shah Jahan (1666) in the main tomb hall. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 1981) Fig. 21. Cenotaph of Shah Jahan in the lower tomb chamber (â€Å"crypt†). Detail of poppies and yellow flowers set in cartouches, inlaid with semi-precious stones in pietra dura/parch? n k? r? technique. (Photo: Ebba Koch, 2002) the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance The chisel has become the pen of Mani48 Painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (? b-i marmar). †¦.Pictures become manifest from every stone; In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden. They have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble: What they lack in smell they make up with color. Those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief, are completely out of carnelian and amber. †¦. When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, The deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. 49 147 and to provide a lasting memorial to his fame. Strict formal principles served to express within each work of art and each building the hierarchy and timeless order of Shahjahani rule.With their successful appeal to our senses, the seductive aesthetics make the message the more persuasive. It is the fusion of the intellectual and the sensuous that has made the Taj Mahal such a successful monument up to the present day. Lastly, the close connection between form and meaning in Shahjahani art makes it a methodological exemplar of general art-historical relevance; it reminds us tha t formal analysis should not be in opposition to a contextual approach but rather a starting point for art as history.Institute fur Kunstgeschichte University of Vienna NOTES Author’s note: A visiting fellowship from the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University in autumn 2002 enabled me to work on the manuscript of Taj Mahal, and to present my ? ndings in a lecture in the Aga Khan Program Lecture Series on Nov. 14, 2003, which forms the basis of this article. I thank Gulru Necipoqlu, David Roxburgh, Jeffery Spurr, Andras Riedlmayer, and Sunil Sharma for their interest in my research and their help during my stay in Cambridge.For supporting my project of the documentation and analysis of the Taj Mahal, I wish to thank the Jubilaumsfonds der Osterreichischen Nationalbank, the Bundesministerium fur Unterricht und Kulturelle Angelegenheiten, Austria, and Mr. E. Alkazi. 1. W. E. Begley, â€Å"The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of its Symbolic Meanin g,† The Art Bulletin 61 (1979): 7– 37. Begley’s interpretation of the building as a replica of the Throne of God became widely known, probably because of its eccentricity and also because there was no proposed alternative; it even made its way into the popular travel guide literature: see Lonely Planet: India, 8th ed. Hawthorne: Victoria, Australia, 1999), 392. 2. The Complete Taj Mahal and the Riverfront Gardens of Agra (London: Thames and Hudson, forthcoming 2006). 3. Mu? ammad Am? n Qazw? n? , P? dsh? hn? ma, British Library Asia, Paci? c, and Africa Collections (henceforth BL APAC), Or. 173, fol. 234b (librarian’s refoliation 235b), my translation; cf. the translation of this passage in W. E. Begley and Z. A. Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources (Cambridge, MA: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture and Seattle: University of Washington Press, ca. 989), 42. 4. {Abd al-Yam? d L? hawr? , The B? dsh? hn? mah (Persian text), ed. M. Kab? r al-D? n A? mad and M. {Abd al-Ra m (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1865–72) vol. 1, pt. 1, 403, my trans. ; cf. the trans. of this passage in Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 43. 5. I thank Dr. S. M. Yunus Jaffery for his continuing assistance in reading and translating Mughal source material. On both cenotaphs of Shah Jahan, which were placed next to those of Mumtaz after his death in 1666, the decoration with paradisiacal ? owers was given preference even over inscriptions.Inscriptions had decorated the sarcophagus-like element of both cenotaphs of Mumtaz, the one in the lower and the other in the upper tomb chamber, and full ? owering plants appear only on the platform of her upper cenotaph. But both of Shah Jahan’s cenotaphs are covered all over with ? owers (? gs. 20, 21); the only epigraphy appears in the form of a brief historical epitaph at the south end of each cenotaph. The w eight given to ? oral decoration is in tune, on the one hand, with the overall concept of the mausoleum as paradisiacal garden house, but the exclusively ? oral decoration of the emperor’s cenotaphs makes a more speci? statement, relating, even after his death, to the use of ? ora in his court settings to express imperial propaganda. The court poets and writers tell us that Shah Jahan was â€Å"the spring of the ? ower garden of justice and generosity,†50 the renewer (mujaddid) under whose rule â€Å"Hindustan has become the rose garden of the earth, and his reign†¦has become the spring season of the age in which the days and nights are young. †51 CONCLUSION From our investigations, the reign of Shah Jahan emerges as a time when the visual arts were most consistently and systematically explored as a means of promulgating imperial ideology.The written texts and the arts were seen as equally necessary means to represent the ruler and his state for a wider pub lic 148 6. ebba koch My ? eld research provides the material for a constantly expanding archive, which today comprises several hundred architectural drawings prepared mainly by Richard A. Barraud and ca. 50,000 photographs taken by myself. E. W. Smith, The Moghul Architecture of Fathpur-Sikri, Archaeological Survey of India: New Imperial Series (henceforth ASINIS) 18, 4 vols. (1894–98, repr.Delhi: Caxton Publications, 1985); idem, Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandarah near Agra, Described and Illustrated, ASINIS 35 (Allahabad: Superintendent Government Press, United Provinces, 1909). In the second Indian edition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002), 98–101. The most useful studies are Muhammad Abdulla Chaghtai, Le Tadj Mahal d’Agra (Brussels, 1938); R. A. Jairazbhoy, â€Å"The Taj Mahal in the Context of East and West: A Study in Comparative Method,† Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 24 (1961): 59–88; Dieter Brandenburg, Der Taj Mahal in Agra (Berlin, 1969); R.Nath, The Immortal Taj Mahal (Bombay, 1972); and Lisa Golombek, â€Å"From Tamerlane to the Taj Mahal,† in Islamic Art and Architecture: In Honor of Katharina Otto-Dorn, ed. A. Daneshvari, Islamic Art and Architecture, 1 (Malibu, 1981), 43–50. Muhammad Moin-ud-din, The History of the Taj (Agra, 1905), recorded for the ? rst time the inscriptions of the Taj; his pioneering effort was superseded by Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb. For excellent photographs by Jean Nou, see Amina Okada and M. C.Joshi, Taj Mahal (New York, London, and Paris: Abbeville Press, 1993): unfortunately the illustrations are only partly identi? ed. For further literature on the Taj Mahal, see Ebba Koch, â€Å"T? dj Ma? all,† Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (henceforth EI2) (Leiden: Brill, 1960–2004), vol. 10, 58–60, and idem, Complete Taj Mahal. Koch, â€Å"T? dj Ma? all,† ? g. 4 presents my new overall plan of the complex for the ? rst time. A brief assessment based on this survey is idem, â€Å"The Taj Mahal,† in The Seventy Architectural Wonders of Our World, ed. Neil Parkyn (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), 57–61.We measured the buildings with metal and plastic tapes and with a laser measuring instrument called Disto Basic, made by Leica. Based on our survey, Richard Barraud did the scale drawings by hand; I took the photographs with a Nikon FS Photomic. All plans and photographs illustrating this article are part of this survey. A selection is published in Koch, â€Å"Taj Mahal,† 60. Jaques Derrida, â€Å"Structure, Sign, and Play,† Writing and Difference, trans. A. Bass (Chicago, 1978). The width of the complex at the southern, jilawkh? na, end measures 300. 84 m; at the riverfront it is 300 m. This is explained by Richard A.Barraud in his pioneering study â€Å"The Modular Planning of the Taj Mahal,† based on our measurements and illustrated with three drawings, in Koch, Complete Taj Mahal. Barraud refutes Begley’s assumption that the planning of the Taj can be reconstructed by putting a decimal grid over the whole complex and explaining away the features that do not ? t into it. See Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, ? gs. 13–15, and W. E. Begley, â€Å"The Garden of the Taj Mahal: A Case Study of Mughal Architectural Planning and Symbolism,† in Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects, ed. J. L. Wescoat, Jr. and J.WolschkeBulmahn (Washington, DC, 1996). In earlier publications I have given differing measurements of the complex. In Koch, â€Å"T? dj Ma? all,† 58, a misprint occurred in the rendering of the gaz equivalents of the preserved part, which are indicated as 690 x 313 gaz instead of 696 x 374 gaz. In my essay in Seventy Architectural Wonders, 61, the overall length of the complex is given as 897. 3 x 300 m, because we took it from the outer face of the southernmost g ate, which projects 1. 20 m from the enclosure wall. From this comes the overall length of 1114 gaz cited in Koch, â€Å"T? dj Ma? all,† 58, which differs from the one given here as 1112. gaz. Ebba Koch, â€Å"The Mughal Waterfront Garden,† in Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires: Theory and Design, Supplements to Muqarnas, 7, ed. Attilio Petruccioli (Leiden, New York, and Cologne: Brill, 1997), 140–60, repr. in Ebba Koch, Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 183–202. Cat. no. 126. The plan is painted on cloth and measures 294 x 272 cm. I have studied it since the mid-1980s and discussed it in several publications: see Ebba Koch, â€Å"The Zahara Bagh (Bagh-i Jahanara) at Agra,† Environmental Design 2 (1986): 30– 37; idem, â€Å"The Mughal Waterfront Garden† in M.C. Beach, Ebba Koch, and Wheeler Thackston, King of the World: The Padshahnama: An Imperial Mughal Manuscript from the Roya l Library, Windsor Castle (London: Azimuth Editions and Washington, DC: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, 1997), cat. no. 29, 185–87 and cat. no. 45, 209–10, ? g. 132. I thank Dr. B. M. Jawalia, Keeper of Manuscripts, for assisting me in reading the inscriptions of the plan in July 1985 and Feb. 1986, and Dr. A? ok Kumar Das, then Director of the Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum, Jaipur, for the permission to study and to publish it. As no. 45 on the line drawing of ? g. I have added a further complex, which represents the Chhatri of Jaswant Singh (d. probably 1678), a well-preserved funerary complex that does not appear on the Jaipur map. L? lah S? l Chand, Tafr? h al-{im? r? t, compiled for James Stephen Lushington, Acting Collector and Magistrate of Agra, 1825–26, BL APAC, Pers. Or. 6371. I have used the copy prepared in 1836–37 for James Davidson, Sessions Judge, Agra, BL APAC, Pers. ms. 2450. Koch, â€Å"Zahara Bagh (Bagh-i Jahan ara). † For a full discussion of the Agra riverfront scheme, see Koch, Taj Mahal, chap. 1. L? hawr? , B? dsh? hn? ma, vol. 2, 322–31; and Mu? ammad O? li?Kanb? , {Amal-i O? li? , 3 vols. (Lahore, 1967–72) vol. 2, 315– 20; both trans. Begley and Desai in Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 65–82. On Mughal historiography, see the new study by Stephan Conermann, Historiographie als Sinnstiftung: Indopersische Geschichtsschreibung wahrend der Mogulzeit (932–1118/ 1516–1707) (Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 2002), 422 (on L? hawr? ) and 125, 395–96, and passim (on Kanb? ). In his painstaking assessment, Conermann regrettably does not consider art and architecture as sources of history, as I have pleaded for in the introduction to Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, xxiii–xxvii.The ? rst dated plan of the entire complex is by the British landscape artists Thomas and William Daniell, who had it prepared in Agra in 1789 and published in th eir Two Views of the Taje Mahel at the City of Agra in Hindostan Taken in 1789 (London, 1801). A similar plan, but painted on cloth, is in the 7. 8. 9. 15. 16. 17. 10. 18. 11. 19. 20. 21. 12 . 13. 14. 22. the taj mahal: architecture, symbolism, and urban signi? cance Museum of the Taj Mahal (acc. no. 22), in the pavilion set in the western wall of the garden; another plan of this type, 280 x 85 cm, is in the Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. I 10 060.It has been published in Pratapaditya Pal, Janice Leoshko, Joseph M. Dye III, and Stephen Markel, Romance of the Taj Mahal, exhibition catalogue (London: Thames and Hudson and Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1989), 55, ? g. 41. The plans differ in the areas of the jil? wkhana and the caravansarais. L? hawr? , B? dsh? hn? ma, vol. 2, 329–30; Kanb? , {Amal-i O? li? , vol. 2, 319–20. See also Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 75, 81. For the term, see below. For d? n wa-duny? , see L. Gardet , â€Å"D? n,† EI2, vol. 2, 293–96, in particular 295. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Travels in India, 2 vols. English trans. V. Ball, 2nd ed. ed. William Crooke (London: Oxford University Press, 1925; repr. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1977), vol. 1, p. 90. See, e. g. , L? hawr? , B? dsh? hn? ma, vol. 1, pt. 1, 155. The aims of the venture have been laid down in Taj Mahal Agra Site Management Plan, brought out by the Taj Mahal Conservation Collaborative together with the Archaeological Survey of India (March 2003); for my mission statement, delivered on Sept. 28, 2001, at the end of the ? rst advisors’ meeting on the conservation of the Taj Mahal (Sept. 25–28, 2001), see 5–6; for the model, see 66–67 and 70, ? g. 12.Ebba Koch, â€Å"The Principles of Shah-Jahani Painting,† in Beach, Koch, and Thackston, King of the World, 131–43; repr. in Ebba Koch, Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, 130–62. L? hawr? , B? ds h? hn? ma, vol. 1, pt. 1, 149. See, e. g. , L? hawr? , B? dsh? hn? ma, vol. 2, 327 with regard to the Taj Mahal, namely, the placement of the Mihman Khana and mosque to both sides of the mausoleum. This concept of rulership is explained in more detail below. On the adoption of the p? r? a ghata in Mughal architecture, see R. Nath, History of Decorative Art in Mughal Architecture (Delhi, Varanasi, and Patna: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976), 6– 10.Barraud, â€Å"Modular Planning of the Taj Mahal,† in Koch, Complete Taj Mahal. E. E. Rosenthal, The Palace of Charles V in Granada (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 249–50. See Priyabala Shah, trans. , Shri Vishnudharmottara, a Text of Ancient Indian Arts (Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co. , n. d. [1990]), 268, 271. Brenda E. F. Beck, â€Å"Colour and Heat in South Indian Ritual,† Man: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, n. s. , 4: 553–72; the quoted passage is on 559. Beck investig ates the use of the two colors, red and white, in South Indian ritual; her ? ndings tally with the recommendations of the Vishnudharmotara. Abd al-Q? dir Bad? }? n? , Muntakhab al-Taw? r? kh, English trans. (vol. 2) W. H. Lowe, 2nd ed. (Bengal: Asiatic Society, 1924; repr. Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1973), 336. For Akbar representing himself on Indian terms, see Ebba Koch, â€Å"The 149 39. 40. 41. 23. 24. 25. 26. 42. 27. 28. 43. 44. 45. 46. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 47. 34. 35. 36. 48. 49. 37. 50. 38. 51. Intellectual and Artistic Climate at Akbar’s Court,† in John Seyller, The Adventures of Hamza: A Monument of Early Mughal Painting (London: Azimuth Editions and Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), 18–31.Koch, Mughal Architecture, 93. L? hawr? , B? dsh? hn? ma, vol. 2, 323; trans. E. Koch; cf. trans. of Begley and Desai in Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 66. E. Koch, introduction to Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, xxiii–xxiv; see also idem, â€Å"Diwan-i {Amm and Chihil Sutun: The Audience Halls of Shah Jahan,† Muqarnas 11 (1994): 143–65, in particular 149–52, repr. in Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, 229–54, in particular 242–43. For a compilation and translation of the inscriptions, see Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 195–244; for a discussion of their meaning, see W. E.Begley, â€Å"Amanat Khan and the Calligraphy on the Taj Mahal,† Kunst des Orients 12 (1978–79): 5–39; W. E. Begley, â€Å"The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning,† The Art Bulletin 61 (1979): 7–37. Begley, â€Å"Myth of the Taj Mahal,† in particular 25–27. Personal communication, Toronto, Dec. 5, 2002. For the frequent use of the Throne Verse in epigraphical programs, see E. D. Cruikshank Dodd, â€Å"The Image of the Word: Notes on the Religious Iconography of Islam,† Berytus 18 (1969): 35–61, 59; S. S . Blair, Islamic Inscriptions (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 69, 198, 214.I pointed this out in Mughal Architecture, 99; and in â€Å"The Mughal Waterfront Garden,† 143–44, repr. in Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, 196; but I could not convince Laura Parodi, â€Å"‘The Distilled Essence of the Timurid Spirit’: Some Observations on the Taj Mahal,† East and West 50, 1–4 (Dec. 2000): 535–42, in particular 539, where she considered my interpretation of the â€Å"ideal paradisiacal garden for the deceased† as â€Å"reductive† and preferred Begley’s Throne of God hypothesis. I have come back to the issue in the introduction to Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, xxiv.Both Begley and Parodi overlook the fact that, however spectacular their realization, the themes of Shahjahani art were conventional, as be? tting a ruler aspiring to classical equilibrium. Robert Skelton ? rst drew attention to the ambivalence of these ? oral creations in â€Å"A Decorative Motif in Mughal Art,† in Aspects of Indian Art: Papers Presented in a Symposium at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Oct. 1970, ed. Pratapaditya Pal (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972), 147–52. The founder of the Manicheans, and in Persian lore the ultimate painter. Ab? lib Kal? , P? dsh? hn? ma, Persian ms. , BL APAC, Ethe 1570, fol. 164a margin; my translation differs somewhat from that of Begley and Desai, Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb, 83. I thank Sunil Sharma for his advice. Bah? r-i gulist? n-i {adl u karam: Y? jj? Mu? ammad J? n Quds? , Zafarn? ma-i Sh? h Jah? n, BL APAC, Persian ms. Ethe 1552, fol. 129a. Kanb? , {Amal-i O? li? , vol. 3, 24; see also Ebba Koch, â€Å"Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526–1648),† Muqarnas 14 (1997): 143–65, quotes on 159; repr. in Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology, 203–28, quotes on 227.